心理英语整理笔记3-4

1 . Perception

A . Visual perceptual organization

a.Perception is the process of interpreting and organising the environmentalinformation received by the senses.b.Visual perceptual organization

For visual perception, this involves taking the constantly fluctuatingpatterns of light which arrive from all over the environment, upside-down,onto our two-dimensional retinas and detecting the shape of objects in theenvironment; Establishing location in three-dimensional space; Recognizing an object in terms of its shape, size, brightness and colour.c.Perceptual Organization: Gestalt

(1)Visual Capture:tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.

(2)Gestalt -- an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of informationinto meaningful wholes.

(3)Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherentgroups.Grouping Principles:

Proximity -- group nearby figures togetherSimilarity -- group figures that are similarContinuity -- perceive continuous patternsClosure -- fill in gaps

Connectedness -- spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connectedd.Top-down theories of perception

(1)Sometimes referred to as constructivist theories, these theories stress thefactors in the construction of reality that go beyond the informationreceived from the senses.

(2)Gregory’s theory and perceptual set theory regard perception as a veryactive process, whereby the individual’s past knowledge, expectations andstereotypes seek out sensory data to ‘complete the picture’.(3)Perceptual Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal imagechange.(color,shape ,size)(4) Illusions

(5) Perceptual Set: Schemas

e.Bottom-up theories of percption

(1)These theories emphasise the richness of the information entering the

eye and the way that perception can occur from using all the informationavailable.

(2)Gibson believes perception occurs directly from sensation, featuredetection theories examine the processes involved in assembling perceptionfrom sensations.

f.The development of perception

Depth Perception: ability to see objects in three dimensions; allows us tojudge distance.

Binocular cues:retinal disparity,images from the two eyes differ; closer theobject, the larger the disparity.

Convergence: neuromuscular cue; two eyes move inward for near objects.Monocular Cues

relative size: smaller image is more distant

Interposition: closer object blocks distant objectrelative clarity: hazy object seen as more distantTexture: coarse --> close; fine --> distant

relative motion: closer objects seem to move fasterlinear perspective: parallel lines converge with distancerelative brightness: closer objects appear brighter2 . Attention

A. Definition: The focusing and concentration of mental effort thatusually results in conscious awareness of certain aspects of externalsensory stimuli or mental experiences (although most study hasfocused on the former).

B. Some studies have looked at focused or selective attention – how certainstimuli are selected over others through allocating attention.

Other studies have looked at divided attention – how, within a limitedcapacity, attention can be allocated to more than one task at a time(Researchhas shown that if tasks are practised enough, they become automatic, needless attention, and can be successfully performed with other tasks).3 . Memory

A.Memory:persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval ofinformation.

B.Flashbulb Memory:a clear memory of an emotionally significantmoment or event

C.Memory as Information Processing

a. Encoding:the processing of information into the memory system. i.e.,extracting meaning.

b.Storage:the retention of encoded information over time.c.Retrieval:process of getting information out of memory.

D.Sensory Memory:the immediate, initial recording of sensory informationin the memory system.

E.Working Memory:focuses more on the processing of briefly storedinformation.

G.Short-Term Memory:activated memory that holds a few items briefly,look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information isforgotten.

H.Long-Term Memory:the relatively permanent and limitless storehouseof the memory system

I.A Simplified Memory Model

Encoding Encoding

Long-termmemoryShort-termmemorySensorymemorySensorymemory

Sensory input attention to important Retrieving or novel information

a. Encoding:Automatic Processing and Effortful Processing

(1)Automatic Processing:unconscious encoding of incidentalinformation(Space, time, frequency);well-learned information(wordmeanings);we can learn automatic processing(reading backwards)(2)Effortful Processing:requires attention and conscious effort.

(3)Rehearsal:conscious repetition of information.(to maintain it inconsciousness ;to encode it for storage)

(4)Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables:the more times practiced on Day 1,the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2.

(5)Spacing Effect:distributed practice yields better long- term retentionthan massed practice.b.What Do We Encode?

(1) Semantic Encoding:encoding of meaning, including meaning of words.(2) Acoustic Encoding:encoding of sound, especially sound of words(3)Visual Encoding:encoding of picture images.

(4)Imagery:mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing,especially when combined with semantic encoding.

(5)Mnemonics:memory aids ,especially those techniques that use vividimagery and organizational devices .

(6)Chunking:organizing items into familiar, manageable units ,likehorizontal organization--1776149218121941(often occursautomatically);use of acronyms ;Organized information is more easilyrecalled;

(7)Hierarchies:complex information broken down into broad concepts andfurther subdivided into categories and subcategories.

Encoding(automaticor effortful)

OrganizationMeaning(semanticEncoding)Imagery(visualEncoding)

ChunksHierarchies

b. Storage: Retaining Information

(1) Iconic Memory:a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli;aphotographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of asecond.

(2)Echoic Memory:momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

(3)Short-Term Memory :limited in duration and capacity;“magical”number 7+/-2

(4)Long-Term Memory

Ⅰ.Synaptic changes:increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapidstimulation.

Ⅱ.Strong emotions make for stronger memories:some stress hormonesboost learning and retention.

Ⅲ.Explicit Memory:memory of facts and experiences that one canconsciously know and declare;also called declarativememory;hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps processexplicit memories for storage.

Ⅳ.Implicit Memory :retention independent of conscious recollection;alsocalled procedural memory.c. Retrieval(1)retrieval

Ⅰ.Recall:measure of memory in which the person must retrieveinformation learned earlier,as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Ⅱ.Recognition:Measure of memory in which the person has only to identifyitems previously learned ,as on a multiple-choice test.

Ⅲ .Relearning:memory measure that assesses the amount of time savedwhen learning material a second time.

Ⅳ. Priming:activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations inmemory.

(2) Retrieval Cues

Ⅰ.Deja Vu (French)--already seen:cues from the current situation maysubconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

Ⅱ.Mood-congruent Memory:tendency to recall experiences that areconsistent with one’s current mood ;memory, emotions, or moods serve asretrieval cues.State-dependent Memory-----what is learned in one state(while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be rememberedwhen in same state

Ⅲ .After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learningreactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a differentcontext.d. Forgetting

(1) Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.

(2)As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.(3)Amnesia--the loss of memory

(4)Forgetting as encoding failure:Information never enters the long-term memory. Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, thenlevels off with time.

(5)Forgetting as retrival failure:Forgetting can result from failure to retrieveinformation from long-term memory.

(6)Interference:Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of otherinformation.

Ⅰ.Proactive (forward acting) Interference:disruptive effect of priorlearning on recall of new information.

Ⅱ.Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference:disruptive effect of newlearning on recall of old information.Ⅲ .Motivated Forgetting

people unknowingly revise memoriesⅣ.Repression

defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety - arousingthoughts, feelings, and memories.(7)Memory Construction

Ⅰ.We filter information and fill in missing pieces.Misinformation Effect and Source Amnesia

Ⅱ.Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questionedJ . Improve Your Memory

(1)Study repeatedly to boost recall.

(2)Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.(3)Make material personally meaningful.

(4)Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg （标记性） words--somethingalready stored;make up story;chunk--acronyms.

(5)Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood

(6)Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation(7)Minimize interference

(8)Test your own knowledge:rehearse;determine what you do not yet know.

CHAPTER 3 Developmental Psychology

1 . Prenatal Development and the NewbornA . Rooting Reflex

tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheekB. Preferences

a. human voices and facesb.smell and sound of motherC. Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

D. Having habituated to the old stimulus, newborns preferred gazing at anew one.

2. Infancy and Childhood:A. Physical Developmenta.Maturation

(1)biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.(2)relatively uninfluenced by experience.

b.Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile--and canretain that learning for a monthB . Cognitive Developmenta. Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.b. Assimilation

interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas.c. Accommodation

adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate newinformation.d. Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering,and communicating.

e.Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Typical Age RangeBirth to nearly 2 years

Description of Stage

Sensorimotor

Experiencing the world throughsenses and actions (looking,

Developmental PhenomenaObject permanenceStranger anxiety

touching, mouthing)

About 2 to 6 years

PreoperationalRepresenting thingswith words and images

but lacking logical reasoningConcrete operational

Thinking logically about concreteevents; grasping concrete analogiesand performing arithmeticaloperations

Formal operationalAbstract reasoning

Pretend playEgocentrism

Language developmentConservation

Mathematical transformations

About 7 to 11 years

About 12 throughadulthoodAbstract logic

Potential for moral reasoning

(1)Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.(2)Baby Mathematics

Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer(3)Conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain thesame despite changes in the forms of objects.(4)Egocentrism

the inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view.(5)Theory of Mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict.(6) Autism

Marked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding ofothers’ states of mind.C . Social Developmenta. Stranger Anxiety

(1)fear of strangers that infants commonly display.(2)beginning by about 8 months of age.b. Attachment

(1)an emotional tie with another person.

(2)shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver anddisplaying distress on separation.

c. Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments

Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while

feeding from the nourishing wire mother.d. Critical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certainstimuli or experiences produces proper development.

e. Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed instrange situations without their surrogate mothers.f. Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a criticalperiod very early in life.

h. Basic Trust (Erik Erikson)

(1)a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy

(2)said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences withresponsive caregiversi. Self-Concept

a sense of one’s identity and personal worthAddition: Child-Rearing Practices

①Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience

②Permissive: submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use littlepunishment

③Authoritative: both demanding and responsive;set rules, but explainreasons and encourage open discussion3. Adolescence

Tips: Adolescence-----the transition period from childhood toadulthood.extending from puberty （青春期）to independence

Puberty-----the period of sexual maturation.when a person becomes capableof reproduction.

Throughout childhood, boys and girls are similar in height. At puberty,girls surge ahead briefly, but then boys overtake them at about age 14.A. Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder

Postconventional levelConventional levelPreconventional level

Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rightsand personal ethical principles.

Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoiddisapproval.

Morality of self-interest: to avoid punishment or gainconcrete rewards.

B . Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentApproximate ageStage Description of TaskInfancy(1st year) Toddler(2nd year)Preschooler(3-5 years)Elementary(6 puberty)

years-Trust vs. mistrustAutonomy vs. Shame anddoubt

Initiative vs. guilt

If needs are dependably met, infantsdevelop a sense of basic trust.Toddlers learn to exercise will and dothings for themselves, or they doubttheir abilities.

Preschoolers learn to initiate tasksand carry out plans, or they feel guiltyabout efforts to be independent.Children learn the pleasure ofapplying themselves to tasks, or theyfeel inferior.Role

Teenagers work at refining a sense ofself by testing roles and thenintegrating them to form a singleidentity, or they become confusedabout who they are.

Young adults struggle to form closerelation-ships and to gain the capacityfor intimate love, or they feel sociallyisolated.

The middle-aged discover a sense ofcontri-buting to the world, usuallythrough family and work, or they mayfeel a lack of purpose.

When reflecting on his or her life, theolder adult may feel a sense ofsatisfaction or failure.

Competencevs. inferiorityIdentity confusion

vs.

Adolescence(teens into20’s)

Young Adult(20’s toearly 40’s)

Middle Adult (40’s to60’s)

Late Adult (late 60’sand up)

Intimacy

vs. isolation

Generativityvs. stagnation

Integrity vs.despair

C . Social Development

a. Identity: one’s sense of self. the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense ofself by testing and integrating various roles.

b .Intimacy: the ability to form close, loving relationships. a primarydevelopmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.c. The changing parent-child relationship: dwindle per years.4. Adulthood

A. Physical Development

a. The Aging Senses: vision ,smell ,and identifying spoken words are

decreasing per years .

b. Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among those 75and older.

c. Incidence of Dementia by Age

Risk of dementia increases in later years .B. Cognitive Development

a. Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is easier foryounger adults than for older ones .

b. the ability to recall new information declined during early and middleadulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not.

c. Cross-Sectional Study: a study in which people of different ages arecompared with one another

d. Longitudinal Study: a study in which the same people are restudied andretested over a long period.

e. Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbalintelligence scores decline .

f. Crystallized Intelligence: one’s accumulated knowledge and verbalskills .Tends to increase with age .

Fluid Intelligence: ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly .Tends todecrease during late adulthood .C. Social Development

a. Social Clock: the culturally preferred timing of social events ,such asmarriage ,parenthood ,retirement

b .Multinational surveys show that age differences in life satisfaction aretrivial .