对外经济贸易大学_管理学原理_考点_精华_UIBE

• Manager（管理者）

 Someone who works with and through other people by coordinating and integrating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals • First-line Managers（基层管理者）

 Are at the lowest level of management and manage the work of non-managerial employees.

• Middle Managers（中层管理者）

 Manage the work of first-line managers.

• Top Managers（高层管理者）

 Are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing plans and goals that

affect the entire organization.

What Is Management?（什么是管理）

• Coordinating working activities （协调）

• Managerial Concerns

 Efficiency（效率）

 “Doing things right”

– Getting the most output for the least inputs

 Effectiveness（效果）

 “Doing the right things”

– Attaining organizational goals

• Functional Approach（管理职能）

 Planning （计划）

 Defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve goals, developing plans to integrate

and coordinate activities.

 Organizing （组织）

 Arranging work to accomplish organizational goals.

 Leading （领导）

 Working with and through people to accomplish goals.

 Controlling （控制）

 Monitoring, comparing, and correcting the work.

• Management Roles Approach （管理角色）

 Interpersonal roles（人际）

 Figurehead, leader, liaison

 Informational roles （信息）

 Monitor, disseminator, spokesperson

 Decisional roles （决策）

 Entrepreneur, Disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator

• Skills Approach（管理技能）

 Technical skills （技术技能）

 Knowledge and proficiency in a specific field

 Human skills （人际技能）

 The ability to work well with other people

 Conceptual skills （概念技能）

 The ability to think and conceptualize about abstract and complex situations concerning

the organization •

• An Organization Defined

 A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose • Common Characteristics of Organizations

 Have a distinct purpose (goal)  Composed of people

 Have a deliberate structure

CHAPTER 2

Scientific Management

Taylor’s Four Principles of Management

1. Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work, which will replace the old

rule-of-thumb method. 科学方法

2. Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker. 科学培训

3. Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the

principles of the science that has been developed. 忠心合作

4. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers. 职责平等 5. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 吉尔布雷斯夫妇

1. Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted motion 2. Developed the microchronometer to time worker motions and optimize performance

6. Henri Fayol 亨利.法约尔

1. Believed that the practice of management was distinct from other organizational functions 2. Developed fourteen principles of management that applied to all organizational situations

Division of work. Authority. Discipline.

Unity of command. Unity of direction.

Subordination of individual interest to the interests of the organization. Remuneration. Centralization. Scalar chain. Order. Equity.

Stability of tenure of personnel. Initiative.

Esprit de corps.

7. Max Weber 马克斯.韦伯

1. Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization (bureaucracy

• Organizational Behavior (OB)

 The study of the actions of people at work; people are the most important asset of an

organization

The Hawthorne Studies （霍桑实验

• A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932. • Experimental findings

 Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions.  The effect of incentive plans was less than expected.

• Research conclusion

 Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work

behavior than do monetary incentives

CHAPER 3

The Manager: Omnipotent or Symbolic?

• Omnipotent View of Management （管理万能论）

 管理者应该直接对组织的成败负责

 不同组织间效能或效率的差异，是由于管理者的决策与行动差异所致

 组织的绩效好坏难以归咎是管理者的直接影响，但管理者仍要为组织绩效负起大部分责任

• Symbolic View of Management （管理象征论）

• 组织的成败大部分是由于管理者无法掌握的外力所造成 • 管理者对成果的掌握能力，会受到外部因素的影响和束缚

• 这些因素包括经济、市场（顾客）的变化、政府政策、竞争者行为、特定

产业状况、专利技术的控制以及前任管理者的决策等

• 管理者透过行动，象征性地控制和影响组织的运作 • Organizational Culture

 A system of shared meanings and common beliefs held by organizational members that

determines, in a large degree, how they act towards each other.  “The way we do things around here.”

• Values, symbols, rituals, myths, and practices

 Implications:

• Culture is a perception. • Culture is shared. • Culture is descriptive.

The source of an organization’ s culture and how that culture continues 看书上 How Employees Learn Culture

• Stories （故事）

 Narratives of significant events or actions of people that convey the spirit of the organization

• Rituals （仪式）

 Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the values of the organization

• Material Symbols

 Physical assets distinguishing the organization

• Language

 Acronyms and jargon of terms, phrases, and word meanings specific to an organization

CHAPER 6

The Decision-Making Process

• The Decision-Making Process （决策制定过程）

 Identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria. （界定问题，

设立决策的准则，分配准则的权重）

 Developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem. （发展、分析、

选择能解决问题之方案 ）

 Implementing the selected alternative. （执行方案）

 Evaluating the decision’s effectiveness. （评估决策的效能）

Step 1: Identifying the Problem

• Problem （问题）

 A discrepancy between an existing and desired state of affairs. （理想情况与现实状况之间存在

了某种差距）

• Characteristics of Problems （问题的特性）

 A problem becomes a problem when a manager becomes aware of it. （管理者察觉问题所在）  There is pressure to solve the problem. （压力——解决问题的动机）

 The manager must have the authority, information, or resources needed to solve the problem.

（管理者必须有解决问题所需之职权、信息和各项资源）

Step 2: Identifying Decision Criteria

• Decision criteria are factors that are important (relevant) to resolving the problem. Step 3: Allocating Weights to the Criteria

• Decision criteria are not of equal importance: • 各个决策准则，其重要性并不完全一致

Step 4: Developing Alternatives 步骤四：开发备择方案

• Identifying viable alternatives 确认可行的方案

 Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) that can resolve the problem. 列出解决问题的各种

可行方案（但不予以评估）

Step 5: Analyzing Alternatives

• Appraising each alternative’s strengths and weaknesses评估每个方案的优劣

 An alternative’s appraisal is based on its ability to resolve the issues identified in steps 2 and 3.

方案的评估是根据第二、三步骤所发展的准则，透过这样的分析，每个方案的优劣即可清楚呈现 Step 6: Selecting an Alternative 步骤六：选择方案

• Choosing the best alternative （选出最佳方案）

 The alternative with the highest total weight is chosen.

选出得分最高的方案

Step 7: Implementing the Decision 步骤七：执行

• Putting the chosen alternative into action. • 将决策付诸行动

 Conveying the decision to and gaining commitment from those who will carry out the decision.

将方案有关的讯息传给执行决策者，并获得他们的认同与承诺

Step 8: Evaluating the Decision’s Effectiveness 步骤八：评估决策的效能

• The soundness of the decision is judged by its outcomes.决策正确与否，可由决策的结果加以检视 Making Decisions （决策模式）

• Rationality （理性）

 Managers make consistent, value-maximizing choices with specified constraints.  Assumptions are that decision makers: （理性假设）

 Are perfectly rational, fully objective, and logical.

 Have carefully defined the problem and identified all viable alternatives.  Have a clear and specific goal

 Will select the alternative that maximizes outcomes in the organization’s interests rather

than in their personal interests.

• Bounded Rationality （有限理性）

 Managers make decisions rationally, but are limited (bounded) by their ability to process

information.

 Assumptions are that decision makers: （有限理性假设）

 Will not seek out or have knowledge of all alternatives

 Will satisfice—choose the first alternative encountered that satisfactorily solves the

problem—rather than maximize the outcome of their decision by considering all alternatives and choosing the best.

• Escalation of Commitment （承诺升级）

 Increasing or continuing a commitment to previous decision despite mounting evidence that the

decision may have been wrong.

What is Intuition? （何谓直觉）

• Structured Problems （结构化问题）

 Involve goals that clear.

 Are familiar (have occurred before).

 Are easily and completely defined—information about the problem is available and complete. Programmed Decision （程序化决策）

 A repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine approach.

• Unstructured Problems （非结构化问题）

• Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete. • Problems that will require custom-made solutions • Nonprogrammed Decisions （非程序化决策）

 Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring.  Decisions that generate unique responses.

Decision-Making Conditions

• Certainty （确定性决策）

 管理者得以作出准确决策的最理想状况，因为所有可能方案的结果都是已知

• Risk （风险决策）

 在风险情况下，决策者可依据个人经验或资料，预估各方案成败与结果的机率

• Uncertainty （不确定性决策）

 当管理者对可能的结果与机率一无所知时，将迫使他们靠直觉、创意、征兆观察和胆识来

作决策

• Uncertainty （不确定性）

 Limited or information prevents estimation of outcome probabilities for alternatives associated

with the problem and may force managers to rely on intuition, hunches, and “gut feelings”.

• Maximax: the optimistic manager’s choice to maximize the maximum payoff （最大

收益最大化）找出每种可能决策的最好结果，选择其中具有最大报酬的决策

Maximin: the pessimistic manager’s choice to maximize the minimum payoff （最小收益最大化）找出每种决策的最差结果，选择其中最大报酬的决策 • Minimax: the manager’s choice to minimize his maximum regret. （最大遗憾最小化） 找出每种决策的最大潜在遗憾，选择其中最小的决策。 于某特定决策和自然状态相关的潜在遗憾，是再该自然状态确实发生的情况下，管理者若选择最好的决策可得到的报酬提高的程度

Decision-Making Styles （决策风格）

• Dimensions of Decision-Making Styles • 决策风格的维度

 Ways of thinking （思考的方式）

 Rational, orderly, and consistent  Intuitive, creative, and unique

 Tolerance for ambiguity （模糊容忍度）

 Low tolerance: require consistency and order  High tolerance: multiple thoughts simultaneously

• Types of Decision Makers （决策者类型）

 Directive （命令型风格）

 Use minimal information and consider few alternatives.

 Analytic （分析型风格）

 Make careful decisions in unique situations.

 Conceptual （概念型风格）

 Maintain a broad outlook and consider many alternatives in making long-term decisions.

 Behavioral （行为型风格）

 Avoid conflict by working well with others and being receptive to suggestions.

CHAPER 8

Strategic Management （战略管理）

• The set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance

of an organization.

• Step 1: Identifying the organization’s current mission, objectives, and strategies

 Mission: the firm’s reason for being

 The scope of its products and services

 Goals: the foundation for further planning

 Measurable performance targets • Step 2: Conducting an external analysis

 The environmental scanning of specific and general environments

 Focuses on identifying opportunities and threats  步骤二：外部环境分析

 对特定环境与一般环境进行分析

 评估组织可利用的机会有哪些？可能面临的威胁为何？

• Step 3: Conducting an internal analysis

 Assessing organizational resources, capabilities, activities, and culture:

 Strengths (core competencies) create value for the customer and strengthen the

competitive position of the firm.

 Weaknesses (things done poorly or not at all) can place the firm at a competitive

disadvantage

 步骤三：内部环境分析

 估算组织内部的资源、能力、活动和文化：

 优势（核心能力）为顾客创造价值并加强企业的竞争力

 弱势（组织表现较差的活动，或组织需要但却未拥有的资源）将使企业处于不利

的竞争条件

Steps 2 and 3 combined are called a SWOT analysis. (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

• Step 4: Formulating strategies

 Develop and evaluate strategic alternatives

 Select appropriate strategies for all levels in the organization that provide relative advantage over

competitors

 Match organizational strengths to environmental opportunities  Correct weaknesses and guard against threats • Step 5: Implementing strategies

 Implementation: effectively fitting organizational structure and activities to the environment  The environment dictates the chosen strategy; effective strategy implementation requires an

organizational structure matched to its requirements • Step 6: Evaluating Results

 How effective have strategies been?  What adjustments, if any, are necessary?

EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF RESOURCES CAPABILITIES AND CORE COMPETENCIES IN THE INTERNAL ANALYSIS 看书上

Types of Organizational Strategies

• Corporate-Level Strategies (公司层战略)

 Top management’s overall plan for the entire organization and its strategic business units （一

组管理决策和行动，它决定了组织的长期绩效。）

• Types of Corporate Strategies

 Growth (增长): expansion into new products and markets（ 向新产品和新市场扩张）  Stability （稳定）: maintenance of the status quo（维持现状）

 Renewal （重建）: redirection of the firm into new markets （重定向企业，转向新的市场）

• Growth Strategy （增长战略）

 Seeking to increase the organization’s business by expansion into new products and markets.

（寻求扩大组织的规模，向新产品和新市场扩张）

• Types of Growth Strategies

 Concentration （集中战略）

 Vertical integration （纵向一体化战略）  Horizontal integration （横向一体化传略）  Diversification （多元化战略）

• Concentration （集中战略）

 Focusing on a primary line of business and increasing the number of products offered or markets

served.

• Vertical Integration （纵向一体化战略）

 Backward vertical integration: attempting to gain control of inputs (become a self-supplier).

 Forward vertical integration: attempting to gain control of output through control of the

distribution channel and/or provide customer service activities (eliminating intermediaries).

• Horizontal Integration （横向一体化传略）

 Combining operations with another competitor in the same industry to increase competitive

strengths and lower competition among industry rivals.

• Related Diversification （相关多元化）

 Expanding by merging with or acquiring firms in different, but related industries that are

“strategic fits”.

• Unrelated Diversification （非相关多元化）

 Growing by merging with or acquiring firms in unrelated industries where higher financial

returns are possible.

• BCG Matrix （BCG矩阵）

 Developed by the Boston Consulting Group  Considers market share and industry growth rate  Classifies firms as:

• Cash cows: low growth rate, high market share（现金牛） • Stars: high growth rate, high market share （明星）

• Question marks: high growth rate, low market share （问号） • Dogs: low growth rate, low market share （售狗）

• Business-Level Strategy （事业层战略）

 A strategy that seeks to determine how an organization should compete in each of its SBUs

(strategic business units).

寻求决定组织应该怎么在每项事业（战略事业单位）上展开竞争。

• Competitive Advantage （竞争战略）

 An organization’s distinctive competitive edge that is sourced and sustained in its core

competencies.

• Quality as a Competitive Advantage （质量作为竞争优势）

 Differentiates the firm from its competitors.

 Can create a sustainable competitive advantage.  Represents the company’s focus on quality management to achieve continuous improvement and

meet customers’ demand for quality.

Five Competitive Forces （五种竞争力量）

• Threat of New Entrants （新进入者的威胁）

 The ease or difficulty with which new competitors can enter an industry.

• Threat of Substitutes （替代威胁）

 The extent to which switching costs and brand loyalty affect the likelihood of customers adopting

substitutes products and services.

• Bargaining Power of Buyers （购买者的议价能力）

 The degree to which buyers have the market strength to hold sway over and influence

competitors in an industry.

• Bargaining Power of Suppliers （供应商的议价能力）

 The relative number of buyers to suppliers and threats from substitutes and new entrants affect

the buyer-supplier relationship.

• Current Rivalry （目前的竞争状况）

 Intensity among rivals increases when industry growth rates slow, demand falls, and product

prices descend.

Competitive Strategies （竞争战略）

• Cost Leadership Strategy （成本领先战略）

 Seeking to attain the lowest total overall costs relative to other industry competitors. （以成为产

业中成本最低的生产者为目标）

• Differentiation Strategy （差异化战略）

 Attempting to create a unique and distinctive product or service for which customers will pay a

premium.（试图提供独特的产品或服务给愿意付出较高价格的顾客）

• Focus Strategy （聚焦战略）

 Using a cost or differentiation advantage to exploit a particular market segment rather a larger

market. （运用成本优势或差异性优势来开发特定市场，而非服务广大的市场）

CHAPER 10

Defining Organizational Structure

• Work Specialization （1、工作专门化） traditional and contemporary views 看书上

 The degree to which tasks in the organization are divided into separate jobs with each step

completed by a different person.（组织中分工的程度，即将任务拆解成几个步骤，再由不同的人分段完成）

• Overspecialization can result in human diseconomies from boredom, fatigue, stress, poor quality,

increased absenteeism, and higher turnover.

（过度分工可能导致人力不经济的现象——无聊、疲劳、压力、质量降低、旷职率与流动率上升） Departmentalization by Type （2、部门化）

• Functional 职能部门化

 Grouping jobs by functions performed（按职能将工作归类）

• Advantages

• Efficiencies from putting together similar specialties and people with common skills,

knowledge, and orientations

• Coordination within functional area • In-depth specialization

• Disadvantages

• Poor communication across functional areas • Limited view of organizational goals

• Product 产品部门化

 Grouping jobs by product line （按生产线归类工作）

+ + + – –

Allows specialization in particular products and services Managers can become experts in their industry Closer to customers Duplication of functions

Limited view of organizational goals • Geographic 地区部门化

 Grouping jobs on the basis of territory or geography （以区域或地理作为划分工作的基础）

• Advantages

• More effective and efficient handling of specific regional issues that arise • Serve needs of unique geographic markets better

• Disadvantages

• Duplication of functions

• Can feel isolated from other organizational areas

• Process 过程部门化

 Grouping jobs on the basis of product or customer flow（依产品或顾客的流动方向来划分

工作）

+ –

More efficient flow of work activities

Can only be used with certain types of products • Customer 客户部门化

 Grouping jobs by type of customer and needs （以顾客群以及顾客需求为基础来划分工作）

+ Customers’ needs and problems can be met by specialists

- Duplication of functions

- Limited view of organizational goals

EXPLAIN CROSS FUCTIONAL TEAMS 看书上 Chain of Command （3、指挥链）

 The continuous line of authority that extends from upper levels of an organization to the lowest

levels of the organization and clarifies who reports to who.

从组织高层到基层的一条连续性的职权关系，能明确指出谁该向谁报告

• Authority （职权）

 The rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it.  职位所赋予的权力，可指示属下该做的事，以及期望属下需达成的工作

• Responsibility （职责）

 The obligation or expectation to perform.  接受被指派的工作的义务

• Unity of Command （统一指挥）

 The concept that a person should have one boss and should report only to that person.  员工只应对一位管理者负责的概念

Discuss the traditional and contemporary views of chain of command 看书上

• Span of Control （4、管理跨度）

 The number of employees who can be effectively and efficiently supervised by a manager. （管

理者可以有效率和有效果地指挥的员工数）

 Width of span is affected by:（管理跨度的影响因素）

 Skills and abilities of the manager （管理者的技能 ）  Employee characteristics （员工的特性 ）

 Characteristics of the work being done （工作的特性 ）  Similarity of tasks （工作的相似性 ）  Complexity of tasks （工作的复杂性 ）

 Physical proximity of subordinates （部属本质的相近性 ）  Standardization of tasks （任务的标准化程度 ）

Discuss the traditional and contemporary views of span of control 看书上

• 5、集权和分权

• Centralization （集权化）

 The degree to which decision-making is concentrated at a single point in the organizations.  组织的决策权掌握在单一管理者的集中程度

 Organizations in which top managers make all the decisions and lower-level employees

simply carry out those orders.

 在某些组织里，最高管理者决定所有的决策，而基层管理者和员工则只是执行高

阶主管的命令而已

• Decentralization （分权化）

 Organizations in which decision-making is pushed down to the managers who are closest to the

action.

 组织的决策下授由直接负责执行的管理者来担任

• Employee Empowerment （对员工授权）

 Increasing the decision-making discretion of employees.  增加员工自行作决策的能力

Factors that Influence the Amount of Centralization

• More Centralization

 Environment is stable.

 Lower-level managers are not as capable or experienced at making decisions as upper-level

managers.

 Lower-level managers do not want to have a say in decisions.  Decisions are significant.

 Organization is facing a crisis or the risk of company failure.  Company is large.

 Effective implementation of company strategies depends on managers retaining say over what

happens. • More Decentralization

 Environment is complex, uncertain.

 Lower-level managers are capable and experienced at making decisions.  Lower-level managers want a voice in decisions.  Decisions are relatively minor.

 Corporate culture is open to allowing managers to have a say in what happens.  Company is geographically dispersed.

 Effective implementation of company strategies depends on managers having involvement and

flexibility to make decisions.

• Formalization （6、正规化）

 The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized and the extent to which

employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.（工作标准化以及员工遵循公司条例与标准程序而行事的程度）

• Highly formalized jobs offer little discretion over what is to be done. • 正式化程度愈高，员工对如何完成该工作的自主权也就愈低

• Low formalization means fewer constraints on how employees do their work. • 正式化程度较低时，员工对如何完成工作则有较大的自由度

Organizational Design Decisions

• Mechanistic Organization • 机械式组织

 A rigid and tightly controlled structure 一种刻板的，严密控制的结构

• Organic Organization • 有机式组织

 Highly flexible and adaptable structure 一种灵活的、具有高度适应性的结构

 Structural decisions are influenced by:

 Overall strategy of the organization （战略）

 Organizational structure follows strategy.

 Size of the organization （规模）

 Firms change from organic to mechanistic organizations as they grow in size.

 Technology use by the organization （技术）

 Firms adapt their structure to the technology they use.

 Degree of environmental uncertainty （环境不确定性）

 Dynamic environments require organic structures; mechanistic structures need stable

environments.

 Strategy and Structure （战略和结构）

 Achievement of strategic goals is facilitated by changes in organizational structure that

accommodate and support change.组织结构应有助于目标的达成，若组织的战略改变，则组织结构也需要配合战略做必要的改变

 Size and Structure （规模和结构）

 As an organization grows larger, its structure tends to change from organic to mechanistic with

increased specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and rules and regulations. 随着组织成长，将从有机式结构转为机械式，并有更多的专业分工、部门划分、集权、组织章程与规范

• Technology and Structure （技术和结构）

 Organizations adapt their structures to their technology. 组织会改变结构以适应其技术

 Woodward’s classification of firms based on the complexity of the technology employed （伍

华德根据术复杂性，将企业分为三类）：

 Unit production （单件生产）  Mass production （大规模生产）  Process production （连续生产）

 Routine technology = mechanistic organizations

例行性技术 = 机械式组织

 Non-routine technology = organic organizations

非例行性技术 = 有机式组织

Environmental Uncertainty and Structure 环境不确定性与结构

 Mechanistic organizational structures tend to be most effective in stable and simple environments.

在稳定而单纯的环境中，机械式的结构会比较有效

 The flexibility of organic organizational structures is better suited for dynamic and complex

environments. 有机式组织结构的弹性，较适合动态而复杂的环境

Common Organizational Designs

• Traditional Designs （传统设计）

 Simple structure （简单结构）

 Low departmentalization, wide spans of control, centralized authority, little

formalization 低部门化、宽管理跨度、职权集中于一人之手、正规化程度较低

 Functional structure （职能结构）

 Departmentalization by function 按照职能部门化

– Operations, finance, human resources, and product research and development

 Divisional structure （事业部型结构）

 Composed of separate business units or divisions with limited autonomy under the

coordination and control the parent corporation. 由独立的单位或事业部组成的组织结构。

• Contemporary Organizational Designs （现代组织设计）

 Team structures （团队结构）

 The entire organization is made up of work groups or self-managed teams of empowered

employees. 整个组织是由许多推动业务的工作群或团队所组成

 Matrix structures （矩阵结构）

 Specialists for different functional departments are assigned to work on projects led by

project managers. 从不同专业功能部门中调集人手组成团队，并由一位项目经理来领导

 Matrix participants have two managers. 矩阵式组织的成员会有两个顶头上司

 Project structures （项目结构）

 Employees work continuously on projects; moving on to another project as each project

is completed. 员工不断在项目中工作；在完成一个项目后再继续其它的项目

CHAPTER 11

What Is Communication?

 Interpersonal Communication （人际沟通）

 Communication between two or more people 两人或两人以上的沟通

 Organizational Communication （组织沟通）

 All the patterns, network, and systems of communications within an organization 组织

内所有的沟通类型、网络以及系统

Interpersonal Communication （人际沟通）

 Message 信息

 Source: sender’s intended meaning

 Encoding 编码

 The message converted to symbolic form

 Channel 通道

 The medium through which the message travels

 Decoding 解码

 The receiver’s retranslation of the message

 Noise 噪声

 Disturbances that interfere with communications

Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication

• Filtering （过滤）

 The deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear more favorable to the

receiver. 故意操纵信息，使信息显得更易于接受

• Emotions （情绪）

 Disregarding rational and objective thinking processes and substituting emotional

judgments when interpreting messages. 在解释信息的时候忽视理性和客观的思考过程而代之以情绪化的判断

• Information Overload （信息超载）

 Being confronted with a quantity of information that exceeds an individual’s capacity to

process it. 面对的信息超过了他的处理能力

• Defensiveness （防御性）

 When threatened, reacting in a way that reduces the ability to achieve mutual

understanding. 当感到受威胁的时候，以一种防卫的方式作出反应，降低了相互理解的可能性

• Language （语言）

 The different meanings of and specialized ways (jargon) in which senders use words can

cause receivers to misinterpret their messages. 发送者的的行话使得接受者误解其信息

• National Culture （国家文化）

 Culture influences the form, formality, openness, patterns and use of information in

communications. 文化影响沟通的形式、正规性、开放程度等各方面

Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communications

• Use Feedback 利用反馈

• Simplify Language 简化语言 • Listen Actively 主动倾听 • Constrain Emotions 控制情绪

• Watch Nonverbal Cues 注意非口语暗示

Types of Organizational Communication 组织沟通的类型 Direction of Communication Flow

• Downward （下行沟通）

 Communications that flow from managers to employees to inform, direct, coordinate, and

evaluate employees. （信息从管理者流向下属人员的沟通，通常用于通知、命令、协调和评估下属）

• Upward （上行沟通）

 Communications that flow from employees up to managers to keep them aware of

employee needs and how things can be improved to create a climate of trust and respect. （信息从下属人员流向管理者的沟通，它使管理者能了解下属人员对他们的工作、同事以及整个组织的看法）

• Lateral (Horizontal) Communication （横向沟通）

 Communication that takes place among employees on the same level in the organization to

save time and facilitate coordination. （同一组织层次的员工之间发生的沟通）

• Diagonal Communication （斜向沟通）

 Communication that cuts across both work areas and organizational levels in the interest of

efficiency and speed. （发生在同时跨工作部门和跨组织层次的员工之间的沟通）

Types of Communication Networks

• Chain Network （链式网络）

 Communication flows according to the formal chain of command, both upward and

downward. （沟通信息按照正式的指挥链流动，既可以上行，也可以下行。）

• Wheel Network （轮式网络）

 All communication flows in and out through the group leader (hub) to others in the group.

（在领导者与工作小组或团队其他成员之间的沟通）

• All-Channel Network （全通道式网络）

 Communications flow freely among all members of the work team. （在工作团队所有成员

中自由地流动）

CHAPTER 12

The HRM Process （人力资源管理过程）

1. Human Resource Planning; 人力资源规划 2. Recruitment / Decruitment; 招聘/解聘 3. Selection; 甄选

4. Orientation; 上岗引导 5. Training; 培训

6. Employee Performance Management; 绩效管理 7. Compensation/Benefits; 薪酬与福利 8. Career Development; 职业发展

CHAPTER 13 What Is Change?

• Organizational Change （组织变革）

 Any alterations in the people, structure, or technology of an organization

• Characteristics of Change （变革的特征）

 Is constant yet varies in degree and direction

 Produces uncertainty yet is not completely unpredictable  Creates both threats and opportunities

• Managing change is an integral part of every manager’s job. Forces for Change （变革的力量）

• External forces

 Marketplace

 Governmental laws and regulations  Technology  Labor market  Economic changes

• Internal Forces

 Changes in organizational strategy  Workforce changes  New equipment  Employee attitudes

Change Process Viewpoints

• The Calm Waters Metaphor 风平浪静观

 Lewin’s description of the change process as a break in the organization’s equilibrium state 卢

文将变革视为一种打破组织平衡状态的过程：

 Unfreezing the status quo 解冻  Changing to a new state 变革

 Refreezing to make the change permanent 再冻结

• White-Water Rapids Metaphor 急流险滩观

 The lack of environmental stability and predictability requires that managers and organizations

continually adapt (manage change actively) to survive.

Three Categories of Change 变革分类

Managing Resistance to Change 应对变革的阻力

• Why People Resist Change?

 The ambiguity and uncertainty that change introduces

不确定性

 The comfort of old habits 习惯

 A concern over personal loss of status, money, authority, friendships, and personal convenience

担心个人的损失

 The perception that change is incompatible with the goals and interest of the organization 顾虑

变革不符合组织的利益

Managerial Actions to Reduce Resistance to Change

• Education and Communication 教育与沟通 • Participation 参与

• Facilitation and Support 促进与支持 • Negotiation 谈判

• Manipulation and Co-optation 操纵与合作 • Coercion 强制

CHAPTER 14

Psychological Factors Attitudes 态度

 Evaluative statements—either favorable or unfavorable—concerning objects, people, or events.

对物体、任务和事件的评价性陈述，可以赞同也可以反对

Components Of An Attitude 态度的成份

 Cognitive component （认知成份）: the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a

person. 由个人的信念、意见、知识或个人所拥有的信息所构成

 Affective component（情感成份）: the emotional or feeling part of an attitude. 态度中的情

绪与感觉部分

 Behavioral component（行为成份）: the intention to behave in a certain way. 对某人或某事

表现出特定行为的意图

Attitudes and Consistency 态度与一致性

• People seek consistency in two ways 人们会透过两种方法寻求一致性：

 Consistency among their attitudes. 在态度间寻求一致性

 Consistency between their attitudes and behaviors. 在态度和行为间追求一致性

• If an inconsistency arises, individuals 若出现不一致，人们会：

 Alter their attitudes 改变他们的态度  Alter their behavior 改变他们的行为

 Develop a rationalization for the inconsistency 对不一致的现象提出合理的解释

Personality 人格

 The unique combination of psychological characteristics (measurable traits) that affect how a

person reacts and interacts with others.

Classifying Personality Traits

• Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

 A general personality assessment tool that measures the personality of an individual using four

categories:

 Social interaction: Extrovert or Introvert

(E or I) 社交倾向：外向型或者内向型

 Preference for gathering data: Sensing or Intuitive (S or N) 资料收集： 领悟型或直觉

型

 Preference for decision making: Feeling or Thinking (F or T) 决策偏好：情感型或思维

型

 Style of decision making: Perceptive or Judgmental (P or J) 决策风格：感知型或判断

型

The Big Five Model 大五人格模型 • Extraversion 外倾性

 Sociable, talkative, and assertive  个人社交、健谈与决断力

• Agreeableness 随和性

 Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting  脾气好、合群，以及可信任

• Conscientiousness 责任意识

 Responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented  有责任感、可靠性、毅力及成就导向

• Emotional Stability 情绪稳定性

 Calm, enthusiastic, and secure or tense, nervous, and insecure  冷静、热心、安定或紧张、神经质、不稳定的

• Openness to Experience 经验的开放性

 Imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual  想象力、艺术敏感度、智力

Emotions and Intelligence 情绪智力

• Emotions 情绪

 Intense feelings (reactions) that are directed at specific objects (someone or something)情绪是受

到某人或某事刺激时的立即感受

• Emotional Intelligence (EI) 情绪智力

 An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s

ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. 一种非认知的技能、潜能和素质范畴，它影响到一个人能否成功地面对环境的要求与压力。

Perception 知觉

• Perception 知觉

 A process by which individuals give meaning (reality) to their environment by organizing and

interpreting their sensory impressions. 个体为了对自己所在的环境赋予意义而组织和解释自己的感觉印象的过程。

• 归因理论

 归因理论(attribution theory)说明了我们对某一特定行为的不同解释，会导致我们对该特定

人物的不同判断

• 发自内在的行为：是个体能主动掌控的 • 外在因素的行为：受外部因素的影响

 决定行为的因素

• 情况特殊性：不同的情境下有不同的行为

• 团体共通性：在相同情境下，每个人都会有相同的反应 • 个体一贯性：相同行为的规律性

• Attribution Theory (cont’d)

 Fundamental attribution error 基本归因错误

 The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and to overestimate the

influence of internal or personal factors. 当在判断他人行为时，会有低估外在因素的影响，以及高估内部或个人因素影响的现象

 Self-serving bias 自我服务偏差

 The tendency of individuals to attribute their successes to internal factors while blaming

personal failures on external factors. 个人倾向于把成功归因于自己的能力或努力等内部因素，却将失败归因于运气不佳等外部因素

CHAPTER 16

What Is Motivation? 什么是动机

 The processes that account for an individual’s willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach

organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.当一个人的努力能同时满足其某种需求时，他会全力以赴达成组织目标的意愿

 Effort: a measure of intensity or drive.

努力：衡量驱动力或强度的要素

 Direction: toward organizational goals

目标：与组织的目标一致

 Need: personalized reason to exert effort

需求：个人会竭尽全力之个人驱动力

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory • 马斯洛的需求层次理论

 Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to higher-order needs.

 Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order needs.

在满足高层次需求之前，必须先满足低层次的需求

 Satisfied needs will no longer motivate. 已经满足的需求不再具有激励作用

 Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that person is on the hierarchy.

激励某人必须了解这个人目前的需求层次

 Hierarchy of needs

 Lower-order (external): physiological（生理）, safety（安全）

 Higher-order (internal): social （社交）, esteem （尊重）, self-actualization （自我

实现）

HOW TO USE MASLOW TO MOTIVATE PEOPLE 看书上

• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y 麦格雷戈的X理论与Y理论

 Theory X

 Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and

require close supervision. 假设员工没什么企图心、不喜欢工作、想逃避责任，因此需要有严密的控制才能有效地工作

 Theory Y

 Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work.

假设员工会自动自发、扛起责任并主动负责，同时并认为工作是自然的活动

 Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group

relations. 让员工参与决策、承担责任和具挑战性的工作，以及发展良好的团体关系等作法，对员工的激励效果最大

• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory • 赫茨伯格的激励－保健理论

 Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.

 Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction. 保健

因子：导致工作不满意的外部因素

 Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction. 激励因子：导

致工作满意的内部因素

 Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance.

 The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction. “满意”的对

立面是“没有满意”，而不是“不满意”

• Three-Needs Theory 三种需求理论

 There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work. 工作的主要动机源自于

三项需求

 Need for achievement (nAch) 成就需求

 The drive to excel and succeed 超越他人、追求成功的驱动力

 Need for power (nPow) 权力需求

 The need to influence the behavior of others影响他人行为的需求

 Need of affiliation (nAff) 归属需求

 The desire for interpersonal relationships渴望人际关系的需求

• Equity Theory 公平理论

 Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to

what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others.员工知道产出与投入间的关系，然后会进一步比较自己和他人的投入产出比率

 If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity (fairness) exists.如果员工察觉

自己的比率与他人相同时，则公平正义是存在的

 If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the person feels under- or

over-rewarded.如果比率不相等则表示存在着不公平，员工会认为自己报酬不足或过多

 When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do something to rebalance the ratios

(seek justice).当不公平的情况发生时，员工会试图做一些改正（寻求公平正义）

• Equity Theory (cont’d)

 Employee responses to perceived inequities:

 Distort own or others’ ratios. 曲解自己或他人的付出或所得

 Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes. 采取某种行为使他人的付出或

所得发生改变

 Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes (seek greater rewards).

采取某种行为改变自己的付出或所得

 Choose a different comparison (referent) other (person, systems, or self). 选择其他的

参照对象进行比较  Quit their job .离职

 Employees are concerned with both the absolute and relative nature of organizational rewards.员

工既关心绝对报酬也关心相对报酬  Distributive justice 分配正义

 The perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (i.e.,

who received what). 员工对奖励分配结果的公平感知

• Influences an employee’s satisfaction.影响员工满意度

 Procedural justice 程序正义

 The perceived fairness of the process use to determine the distribution of rewards (i.e.,

how who received what).员工对奖励分配过程的公平感知

• Affects an employee’s organizational commitment. 影响组织承诺

• Expectancy Theory 期望理论

 States that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be

followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.期望理论主张个人会根据行为所产生某种结果的期望，以及此结果对个人吸引力的大小，而有某种行为的倾向。

 Key to the theory is understanding and managing employee goals and the linkages among and

between effort, performance and rewards.期望理论的关键在于了解个人目标，以及努力—绩效、绩效—奖酬，与奖酬—个人目标满足之间的关联性

 Effort: employee abilities and training/development 努力  Performance: valid appraisal systems 绩效

 Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs 奖励（目标）

• Expectancy Relationships

 Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)期望（努力－绩效联系）

 The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result in a certain level of

performance.

 Instrumentality 手段（绩效－奖励联系）

 The perception that a particular level of performance will result in the attaining a desired

outcome (reward).

 Valence 效价（奖励的吸引力）

 The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual.

CHAPTER 17

Managers Versus Leaders

• Managers管理者

 Are appointed to their position.管理者的职位是被派任的

 Can influence people only to the extent of the formal authority of their position.影响力是来

自于其职位所赋有的职权

 Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be leaders.不需具备成为领导者的技能

和能力

• Leaders领导者

 Are appointed or emerge from within a work group.是被指派或由工作团队中产生的

 Can influence other people and have managerial authority.能够以超越职权的方式影响他

人

 Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be managers.不需具备成为管理者的技

能和能力

• Behavioral Theories行为理论

 University of Iowa Studies 艾奥瓦大学 (Kurt Lewin)

 Identified three leadership styles 探索出三种领导型态：

– Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation 专制型态：集权与命

令式、鲜少让员工参与

– Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback 民主型态：参与、

高度互动、回馈

– Laissez faire style: hands-off management 放任型态：充分授权管理

 Research findings: mixed results 研究发现：混合式的结果

– No specific style was consistently better for producing better performance 并

没有一种特定的领导型态会为生产力带来较好的绩效 – Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader than an autocratic

leader. 在民主型态领导下的群体满意度会高于专制型态

 Ohio State Studies 俄亥俄州立大学

 Identified two dimensions of leader behavior 发现领导行为的两个重要层面

– Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and the

roles of group members 定规：界定领导者以及组织成员的角色

– Consideration: the leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’

ideas and feelings. 关怀：领导者以“互信”和“尊重成员想法及感受”来定义工作关系

 Research findings: mixed results 研究发现：混合式的结果

– High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high group task

performance and satisfaction. 一位高定规与高关怀的领导者（称为高－高的领导者），有更高的群体绩效和满意度

– Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly influence

leadership effectiveness. 证据指出情境因素会高度影响领导绩效

 University of Michigan Studies密西根大学的研究

 Identified two dimensions of leader behavior发现两个领导者行为构面

– Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships员工导向：重视人际

关系

– Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment生产导向：强调任务

的完成

 Research findings 研究发现：

– Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated with high group

productivity and high job satisfaction.群体的高生产力以及高工作满意度，与员工导向的领导者密切相关

• Managerial Grid 管理方格

 Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions 两个维度评估领导风格:

 Concern for people 关心人

 Concern for production 关心生产

 Places managerial styles in five categories 管理者风格的五种类型:

 Impoverished management 贫乏型管理（1，1）  Task management 任务型管理（9，1）

 Middle-of-the-road management 中庸之道型管理（5，5）  Country club management 乡村俱乐部型管理（1，9）  Team management 团队型管理（9，9）

Contingency Theories of Leadership

• The Fiedler Model (cont’d) 费德勒权变模型

 Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s

style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence. 认为群体绩效决定于“领导者与部属的互动型态”，以及“领导者控制和影响情境的程度”两项因素间的适当配合  Assumptions 假设：

 A certain leadership style should be most effective in different types of situations. 在

不同情境下会有一个特定的领导风格是最有效的

 Leaders do not readily change leadership styles. 领导者并不易于改变其领导风格

– Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it

favorable to the leader is required. 为领导者选择适合的情境或改变情境以配合领导者是必要的

• The Fiedler Model (cont’d)

 Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire最不受欢迎同事之问卷

 Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives.

借由十八组对比的形容词，来界定领导型态

– High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style 高分：关系导向的领导型

态

– Low score: a task-oriented leadership style 低分：任务导向的领导型态

 Situational factors in matching leader to the situation 领导者和情境因素的配对：

 Leader-member relations 领导者—成员关系  Task structure 任务结构  Position power 职权

• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)赫赛和布兰查德的情境领导理论

 Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style which is

contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness. 成功的领导可透过正确的风格来达成，而领导风格又取决于部属的成熟度

 Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a

leader. 接受度：领导效能端赖部属接受或拒绝领导者

 Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish

a specific task. 成熟度：是指人们有能力也有意愿去完成一件明确任务的程度

 Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they become more competent.

当部属足够成熟得以胜任工作时，领导者必须减少控制权，交棒给部属

 Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedler’s two leadership dimensions 结合

费德勒的两个领导构面（任务与关系行为），发展出四种特定的领导风格：

 Telling: high task-low relationship leadership 告知型：高任务导向、低关系导向  Selling: high task-high relationship leadership 推销型：高任务导向、高关系导向  Participating: low task-high relationship leadership 参与型：低任务导向、高关系导

向

 Delegating: low task-low relationship leadership 授权型：低任务导向、低关系导向

 Posits four stages follower readiness 部属成熟度的四个阶段:

 R1: followers are unable and unwilling 部属既无能力又无信心  R2: followers are unable but willing 部属有动机却缺乏适当的技能

 R3: followers are able but unwilling 部属能够却不愿去做领导者所要求的事  R4: followers are able and willing 部属能够也愿意做领导者要求的事

• Leader Participation Model 领导者参与模型(Vroom and Yetton)

 Posits that leader behavior must be adjusted to reflect the task structure—whether it is routine,

nonroutine, or in between—based on a sequential set of rules (contingencies) for determining the form and amount of follower participation in decision making in a given situation.领导者的行为必须加以调整以适应任务的结构——常规的、非常规的、或介于二者之间——根据不同的情境类型，给领导者提供了一系列应该遵循的规则或规范，以确定领导者在决策中的参与类型和参与程度。

• Leader Participation Model Contingencies领导者参与模型的权变因素：

 Decision significance 决策的显著性

 Importance of commitment 承诺的重要性  Leader expertise 领导者的专业化

 Likelihood of commitment 承诺的可能性  Group support 群体的支持性  Group expertise 群体的专业化  Team competence 团队的实力

Leadership Styles: Vroom Leader Participation Model

• Decide 裁决: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group.

• Consult Individually 个别磋商: Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their

suggestions, and then makes the decision.

• Consult Group 群体磋商: Leader presents the problem to group members in a meeting, gets their

suggestions, and then makes the decision.

• Facilitate 推动促进: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator,

defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made.

• Delegate 授权: Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits.